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Phonological Processes
Table 2
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suprasegmental stress intonation juncture
"It
a'int what you say but the way you say it."
This familiar
comment, immortalized in song, is the time-honored way of briefly
indicating what suprasegmental analysis is all about.
The segments of spoken
language are the vowels and the consonants, which combine to produce
syllables, words, and sentences.
But at the same time as we
articulate these segments, our pronunciation varies in other respects.
We make use of a wide range of tones of voice, which change the meaning
of what we way in a variety of different ways. Suprasegmental
features operate over longer stretches of speech, such as rhythm and
voice quality as opposed to segmental features, which are the individual
sounds.
Students of language and those who
plan careers in language teaching, coaching, therapy, acting, and
speaking will benefit greatly from understanding how they can influence
meaning by things like length, intonation, stress, and tone and other
suprasegmental features.
Length - the amount of time it takes to produce a sound
Some sounds are longer than others.
If you were to pronounce both
words with longer vowels, the pronunciation might seem strange but the
meaning is not lost. In other words, the meaning of beat and beat
are the same.
But in other languages, vowel
length actually changes the meaning of words. Therefore, pronunciation
of the lengthened sound is very important because the word means
something completely different. Study these examples in Hawaiian.
Length in Hawaiian is indicated with the diacritical mark that looks
like a dash over the vowel, called a kahakō.
| Hawaiian: | kau "to place" |
| kāu "to belong to you" | |
| lolo "brain" | |
| lōlō "slang - hardheaded | |
| kala "to forgive" | |
| kāla "money" | |
| ka lā "the sun" | |
| pau "finished" | |
| pa'u "soot" | |
| pa'ū "skirt" |
In English, you can express your
emotions by lengthening certain sounds in sentences. By varying the
tempo of words (such as lengthening specific sounds) you can communicate
your feelings.
| English: | Should I leave now? |
| Yes. (snipped, implies irritation) | |
| Ye-e-e-e-s-s-s-s (implies thoughtfulness) |
Intonation - the rising and falling of the voice (pitch) over a stretch of sentence
If pitch varies over an entire
phrase or sentence, we call the different pitch curves by the term intonation.
Intonation conveys the speaker's attitude or feelings. In other
words, intonation can convey anger, sarcasm, or various emotions.
How do these sentences - with the
exact same words -- mean very different things with different
intonation?
| John told me to leave. | (normal intonation) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on John: John, not Mike) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on told: told, not asked nicely) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on me: me, not you or Mary) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on leave: leave, not stay) |
Other languages don't use
intonation in this way. "John told me to leave" is "Jose
me mando a salir" in Spanish.
But it's not possible to say Jose me mando a salir
or Jose me mando a salir, as we can in English.
Instead of raising your voice to emphasize a word, Spanish uses word
order and places the word to be emphasized at the end
of the sentence (note: the written accent marks are left out below):
| John told me to leave. | Jose me mando a salir. | (normal intonation) |
| John told me to leave. | Me mando a salir a José. | (emphasis on José) |
| John told me to leave. | Jose me mando a salir a mi. | (emphasis on me) |
3
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classification of diphthongs
An illustrated note on diphthongs
Coverage of the diphthong and its relatives the triphthong and the tetraphthong is somewhat cursory in phonetics and phonology books I have access to, and ironically (or perhaps expectedly) the entries on the subject in Trask (1996) are the best I've found:- diphthong /'difthan/ n.
- A single syllabic nucleus which begins with one vowel
quality and changes more or less smoothly to a second quality, as in
[ju] and [ai]. Usually one one of the two vocalic elements is more
prominent than the others, this other consisting only of a preceding
glide (an on-glide, as in [ju]), or a following glide (an
off-glide, as in [ai]). The
first type is called a crescendo (or
rising) diphthong, the second a
diminuendo (or falling)
diphthong. Diphthongs may be further classified as
wide or narrow, as
closing or opening, or as
backing, fronting or
centring. Cf. monophthong,
triphthong, tetraphthong.
NOTE the spelling and the pronounciation of this word. It is an error to use the term `diphthong' in the sense of digraph. Greek diphthonggos `double sound'.
Opening and closing diphthongs
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Fronting, centring and backing diphthongs
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Rising and falling diphthongs
These terms are found in Lass(1984) and Laver(1994) as well, 'crescendo' and 'diminuendo' diphthongs seems to be unique to Trask. A term Trask seems to have overlooked is 'level diphthong' as used in Laver(1994); neither rising nor falling.- rising diphthong n. (also crescendo diphthong)
- A diphthong consisting of an on-glide followed by a more prominent second element, such as [ju] or [we]. Ant. falling diphthong.
- falling diphthong n. (also diminuendo diphthong)
- A diphthong consisting of a more prominent first element followed by a less prominent off-glide, such as [aj], [aw], [ee] or [oj]. Ant. rising diphthong.
], as in [
] and [
], which is as good as any.Narrow and wide diphthongs
- narrow diphthong n.
- A diphthong whose intial and final elements differ little in height, such as [ei] or [ow]. Ant. wide diphthong.
- wide diphthong n.
- A diphthong involving a large movement between its intial and final elements, such as [ai]. Ant. narrow diphthong.
Some triphthongs
Whether triphthongs (and tetraphthongs) actually exist is also somewhat debated: the issue is, as with diphthongs, what status/difference is there between the glides (semi-vowels) /j/ and /w/ and "true" vowels. Is a sequence of three "vowels" a sequence of three vowels or are one or two of them glides?
Classification of vowels
Vowel Classification
| Vowel Classification | Vowel Quadrilateral | Dipthongs | Vowel Transcription |
The lips are characterized by being either retracted or
rounded. This is shown in the difference between "moon" and "mean"
Retracted: ALL of the front vowels are classified as retracted, as well as unstressed mid-central vowels, and one low-back vowel.
/i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ, ɑ, ə, ʌ/
Rounded: Most of the back vowels are classified as rounded.
/u, ʊ, o, ɔ, ɚ, ɝ/
Retracted: ALL of the front vowels are classified as retracted, as well as unstressed mid-central vowels, and one low-back vowel.
/i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ, ɑ, ə, ʌ/
Rounded: Most of the back vowels are classified as rounded.
/u, ʊ, o, ɔ, ɚ, ɝ/
The vowels can also be characterized by being either a tense
vowel or a lax vowel.
Tense vowel: These tend to be longer in duration and may require more effort. Also, it can end open syllables.
/i, e, u, o, ɔ, ɑ, ɝ/
Lax vowels include:
/ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʊ, ə, ʌ, ɚ/
Lax vowels never end a stressed open syllable.
Tense vowel: These tend to be longer in duration and may require more effort. Also, it can end open syllables.
/i, e, u, o, ɔ, ɑ, ɝ/
Lax vowels include:
/ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʊ, ə, ʌ, ɚ/
Lax vowels never end a stressed open syllable.
Classification of consonant
sonora
Classification of Consonants: Salient Features |
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Manner: How sounds are made
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Voicing: Whether sounds involve vocal cord vibration
1In vowels, the air passes relatively freely. The tongue, in its varied positions, does create some obstruction, but the air is not really passing freely as it does in breathing, for example. 2Using the presence or absence of vocal chord vibration to differentiate physiologically between voiced and unvoiced consonants is technically accurate, particularly if one only considers the sounds in isolation. For example, the fricatives, such as /  /
and /s/ can be produced in isolation and have no vocal chord vibration.
Their voiced partners, the /zh/ and the /z/, both clearly have vocal chord
vibration. However, for the plosives the situation is a little trickier.
Now the acoustic differentiation between voiced and unvoiced sounds
in co-articulated syllables becomes the most meaningful. It
is not actually possible to produce a plosive sound without it being followed
by a vowel. Even in whispering a "p," one is actually producing a
whispered /p / sound.
3Adapted from: Ling D. (1976) Speech and the Hearing-Impaired Child: Theory and Practice. Washington DC: AG Bell, p. 259. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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