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How to Write an Essay: 10 Easy Steps
How to Write an Essay: 10
Easy Steps
When students complete a first draft, they consider
the job of writing done. When professional writers complete the first
draft, they usually feel they are at the start of the writing process.
When the draft is completed, the job of writing can begin.
-- Donald Murray
-- Donald Murray
Why is writing an essay so frustrating?
Learning how to write an essay can be a
maddening, exasperating process, but it doesn't have to be.
If you know the steps and understand what to do, writing can
be easy and even fun.
This site, "How
To Write an Essay: 10 Easy Steps," offers a ten-step
process that teaches students how to write an essay. Links
to the writing steps are found on the left, and additional
writing resources are located across the top.
|
Learning how to write
an essay doesn't have to involve so much trial and error.
 |
Brief Overview of the 10 Essay Writing Steps
Below are brief summaries of each of the ten
steps to writing an essay. Select the links for more info on any
particular step, or use the blue navigation bar on the left to proceed
through the writing steps. How To Write an
Essay can be viewed sequentially, as if going through ten sequential
steps in an essay writing process, or can be explored by individual
topic.
1.
Research:
Begin the essay writing process by researching your
topic, making yourself an expert. Utilize the internet, the academic
databases, and the library. Take notes and immerse yourself in the
words of great thinkers.2. Analysis: Now that you have a good knowledge base, start analyzing the arguments of the essays you're reading. Clearly define the claims, write out the reasons, the evidence. Look for weaknesses of logic, and also strengths. Learning how to write an essay begins by learning how to analyze essays written by others.
3.
Brainstorming: Your essay
will require insight of your own, genuine essay-writing brilliance.
Ask yourself a dozen questions and answer them. Meditate with a
pen in your hand. Take walks and think and think until you come
up with original insights to write about.4. Thesis: Pick your best idea and pin it down in a clear assertion that you can write your entire essay around. Your thesis is your main point, summed up in a concise sentence that lets the reader know where you're going, and why. It's practically impossible to write a good essay without a clear thesis.
5. Outline: Sketch out your essay before straightway writing it out. Use one-line sentences to describe paragraphs, and bullet points to describe what each paragraph will contain. Play with the essay's order. Map out the structure of your argument, and make sure each paragraph is unified.
6. Introduction: Now sit down and write the essay. The introduction should grab the reader's attention, set up the issue, and lead in to your thesis. Your intro is merely a buildup of the issue, a stage of bringing your reader into the essay's argument.
(Note: The title and first paragraph are probably the most important elements in your essay. This is an essay-writing point that doesn't always sink in within the context of the classroom. In the first paragraph you either hook the reader's interest or lose it. Of course your teacher, who's getting paid to teach you how to write an essay, will read the essay you've written regardless, but in the real world, readers make up their minds about whether or not to read your essay by glancing at the title alone.)
7. Paragraphs: Each individual paragraph should be focused on a single idea that supports your thesis. Begin paragraphs with topic sentences, support assertions with evidence, and expound your ideas in the clearest, most sensible way you can. Speak to your reader as if he or she were sitting in front of you. In other words, instead of writing the essay, try talking the essay.
8. Conclusion: Gracefully exit your essay by making a quick wrap-up sentence, and then end on some memorable thought, perhaps a quotation, or an interesting twist of logic, or some call to action. Is there something you want the reader to walk away and do? Let him or her know exactly what.
9. MLA Style: Format your essay according to the correct guidelines for citation. All borrowed ideas and quotations should be correctly cited in the body of your text, followed up with a Works Cited (references) page listing the details of your sources.
10. Language: You're not done writing your essay until you've polished your language by correcting the grammar, making sentences flow, incoporating rhythm, emphasis, adjusting the formality, giving it a level-headed tone, and making other intuitive edits. Proofread until it reads just how you want it to sound. Writing an essay can be tedious, but you don't want to bungle the hours of conceptual work you've put into writing your essay by leaving a few slippy misppallings and pourly wordedd phrazies..
You're done. Great job. Now move over Ernest Hemingway — a new writer is coming of age! (Of course Hemingway was a fiction writer, not an essay writer, but he probably knew how to write an essay just as well.)
My Promise: The Rest of This Site Will Really Teach You How To Write an Essay
For half a dozen years I've read thousands of college essays and taught students how to write essays, do research, analyze arguments, and so on. I wrote this site in the most basic, practical way possible and made the instruction crystal clear for students and instructors to follow. If you carefully follow the ten steps for writing an essay as outlined on this site — honestly and carefully follow them — you'll learn how to write an essay that is more organized, insightful, and appealing. And you'll probably get an A. Now it's time to really begin. C'mon, it will be fun. I promise to walk you through each step of your writing journey.How To Write A Whole Composition
How To Write A Whole Composition
The following is a general structure to follow for many kinds of writing. Adapt it to specialized assignments as appropriate.
I. Introduction
The introduction is intended to draw the reader into the body of material to follow. It should begin with a general statement or question, sometimes called the "thesis statement" or "thesis question," followed by a quick narrowing down to the main theme to be developed in the body. Set the stage quickly, give appropriate background, then move right into a transition sentence that will set up the reader for the body.
II. Body (Argument)
The body of a written piece is where you elaborate, defend, and expand the thesis introduced in the introduction. The body should support your main contention with supporting evidence and possible objections. A good body presents both sides of a case, pro and con. As you make your case, save your best argument for last. When presenting contrary views, be sure to set forth the strongest arguments so you can avoid being charged with erecting a "straw man." The body includes three components:
exceptions - but, alas, however, etc.
illustrations - for instance, for example, etc.
conclusions - thus, so, therefore, consequently, etc.
comparisons - similarly, by contrast, etc.
qualifications - yet, still, etc.
additions - moreover, furthermore, etc.
III. Conclusion
Make your final appeal to the reader, a finishing, all-encompassing statement that wraps up your presentation in a powerful or even dramatic fashion. Normally a single paragraph, brief and concise, will suffice. The purpose of the conclusion is to leave the reader with an idea or thought that captures the essence of the body while provoking further reflection and consideration.
The following is a general structure to follow for many kinds of writing. Adapt it to specialized assignments as appropriate.
I. Introduction
The introduction is intended to draw the reader into the body of material to follow. It should begin with a general statement or question, sometimes called the "thesis statement" or "thesis question," followed by a quick narrowing down to the main theme to be developed in the body. Set the stage quickly, give appropriate background, then move right into a transition sentence that will set up the reader for the body.
II. Body (Argument)
The body of a written piece is where you elaborate, defend, and expand the thesis introduced in the introduction. The body should support your main contention with supporting evidence and possible objections. A good body presents both sides of a case, pro and con. As you make your case, save your best argument for last. When presenting contrary views, be sure to set forth the strongest arguments so you can avoid being charged with erecting a "straw man." The body includes three components:
Elaboration:When moving from one sub-point or argument to another, use connecting or transitional words and phrases that enable your reader to easily follow the flow of your thinking. The following is a partial list of logical connectors that you can use:
Spell out the details by defining, or by clarifying and adding relevant, pertinent information.
Illustration:
Paint a verbal picture that helps make or clarify your point(s). Well illustrated pieces are easier to read and follow than abstract ones.
Argumentation:
Give the reasons, justifications, and rationales for the position or view you have taken in the introduction. Draw inferences for the reader and explain the significance or assertions or claims being made.
exceptions - but, alas, however, etc.
illustrations - for instance, for example, etc.
conclusions - thus, so, therefore, consequently, etc.
comparisons - similarly, by contrast, etc.
qualifications - yet, still, etc.
additions - moreover, furthermore, etc.
III. Conclusion
Make your final appeal to the reader, a finishing, all-encompassing statement that wraps up your presentation in a powerful or even dramatic fashion. Normally a single paragraph, brief and concise, will suffice. The purpose of the conclusion is to leave the reader with an idea or thought that captures the essence of the body while provoking further reflection and consideration.
How to write a composition
You don't have to be a good writer to write well. Writing is a process.
By learning to treat writing as a series of small steps instead of a big
all-at-once magic trick you have to pull off will make writing a
composition much easier and much more fun. You can learn to brainstorm
main ideas before you start writing, organize a draft of those main
ideas, and revise your composition into a polished essay. See Step 1 for
more information.
1
Read the assignment closely.
It's important to get a clear understanding of what your teacher
expects from your composition. Each teacher will have a different set of
things they'll be looking for, both for the topic and the style. Keep
your assignment sheet with you at all times while you're working on your
composition and read it closely. Ask your teacher about anything you
feel unsure about. Make sure you have a good sense of the following:
- What is the purpose of the composition?
- What is the topic of the composition?
- What are the length requirements?
- What is the appropriate tone or voice for the composition?
- Is research required?
- 2Do a free-write or a journaling exercise to get some ideas on paper. When you're first getting started in trying to figure out the best way to approach a topic you've got to write about, do some free-writing. No one has to see it, so feel free to explore your thoughts and opinions about a given topic and see where it leads.
- Try a timed writing by keeping your pen moving for 10 minutes without stopping. Don't shy away from including your opinions about a particular topic, even if your teacher has warned you from including personal opinions in your paper. This isn't the final draft!
Guide to Grammar and writing
The Guide to Grammar and Writing is sponsored by the Capital Community College Foundation,
a nonprofit 501 c-3 organization that supports scholarships, faculty
development, and curriculum innovation. If you feel we have provided
something of value and wish to show your appreciation, you can assist
the College and its students with a tax-deductible contribution.
For more about giving
to Capital, write to CCC Foundation, 950 Main Street, Hartford, CT
06103. Phone (860) 906-5102 or email: jmcnamara@ccc.commnet.edu
Contributions are tax-deductible to the extent allowed by law.
composition - definition of composition by The Free Dictionary
com·po·si·tion 
(k
m
p
-z
sh
n)
composition (ˌkɒmpəˈzɪʃən)
com•po•si•tion (ˌkɒm pəˈzɪʃ ən)
n.
Composition an aggregate; a mixture; objects or persons of different natures associated together.
(kmp-zshn)
n.
1.
a. The combining of distinct parts or elements to form a whole.
b. The manner in which such parts are combined or related.
c. General makeup: the changing composition of the electorate.
d. The result or product of composing; a mixture or compound.
2. Arrangement of artistic parts so as to form a unified whole.
3.
a. The art or act of composing a musical or literary work.
b. A work of music, literature, or art, or its structure or organization.
4. A short essay, especially one written as an academic exercise.
5. Law
A settlement whereby the creditors of a debtor about to enter
bankruptcy agree, in return for some financial consideration, usually
proffered immediately, to the discharge of their respective claims on
receipt of payment which is in a lesser amount than that actually owed
on the claim.
6. Linguistics The formation of compounds from separate words.
7. Printing Typesetting.
[Middle English composicioun, from Old French composition, from Latin compositi
, compositin-, from compositus, past participle of compnere, to put together; see component.]
, compositin-, from compositus, past participle of compnere, to put together; see component.]
compo·sition·al adj.
po·sition·al adj.
compo·sition·al·ly adv.
po·sition·al·ly adv.
The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published
by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
composition (ˌkɒmpəˈzɪʃən)
n
1. the act of putting together or making up by combining parts or ingredients
2. something formed in this manner or the resulting state or quality; a mixture
3. the parts of which something is composed or made up; constitution
4. (Music, other) a work of music, art, or literature
5. (Literary & Literary Critical Terms) a work of music, art, or literature
6. (Art Terms) a work of music, art, or literature
7. (Art Terms) the harmonious arrangement of the parts of a work of art in relation to each other and to the whole
8. (Education) a piece of writing undertaken as an academic exercise in grammatically acceptable writing; an essay
9. (Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) printing the act or technique of setting up type
10. (Linguistics) linguistics the formation of compound words
11. (Logic) logic the fallacy of inferring that the properties of the part are also true of the whole, as every member of the team has won a prize, so the team will win a prize
12. (Law)
a. a
settlement by mutual consent, esp a legal agreement whereby the
creditors agree to accept partial payment of a debt in full settlement
b. the sum so agreed
13. (Chemistry) chem the nature and proportions of the elements comprising a chemical compound
[C14: from Old French, from Latin compositus; see composite, -ion]
ˌcompoˈsitional adj
Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003
com•po•si•tion (ˌkɒm pəˈzɪʃ ən)
n.
1. the manner of being composed; arrangement or combination of parts or elements.
2. the parts or elements of which something is composed; makeup; constitution.
3. the act of combining parts or elements to form a whole.
4. the resulting state or product.
5. an aggregate material formed from two or more substances.
6. a short essay written as a school exercise.
7. the act or process of producing a literary work.
8. a piece of music.
9. the act or art of composing music.
10. the organization or grouping of the different parts of a work of art so as to achieve a unified whole.
11. the process of forming compound words.
12. a settlement by mutual agreement.
13.
a. the setting up of type for printing.
b. the makeup of pages for printing.
[1350–1400; Middle English (< Anglo-French) < Latin compositiō=composi-, variant s. of compōnere (see component) + -tiō -tion]
com`po•si′tion•al, adj.
com`po•si′tion•al•ly, adv.
Random
House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries
Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights
reserved.
Composition an aggregate; a mixture; objects or persons of different natures associated together.
Dictionary of Collective Nouns and Group Terms. Copyright 2008 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.
Thesaurus Legend: Synonyms Related Words Antonyms
| Noun | 1. | composition
- the spatial property resulting from the arrangement of parts in
relation to each other and to the whole; "harmonious composition is
essential in a serious work of art"
placement, arrangement
- the spatial property of the way in which something is placed; "the
arrangement of the furniture"; "the placement of the chairs"
|
| 2. | composition - the way in which someone or something is composed
property - a basic or essential attribute shared by all members of a class; "a study of the physical properties of atomic particles"
structure
- the manner of construction of something and the arrangement of its
parts; "artists must study the structure of the human body"; "the
structure of the benzene molecule"
phenotype - what an organism looks like as a consequence of the interaction of its genotype and the environment
genetic constitution, genotype - the particular alleles at specified loci present in an organism
texture, grain
- the physical composition of something (especially with respect to the
size and shape of the small constituents of a substance); "breadfruit
has the same texture as bread"; "sand of a fine grain"; "fish with a
delicate flavor and texture"; "a stone of coarse grain"
karyotype
- the appearance of the chromosomal makeup of a somatic cell in an
individual or species (including the number and arrangement and size and
structure of the chromosomes)
| |
| 3. | composition - a mixture of ingredients
mixture
- (chemistry) a substance consisting of two or more substances mixed
together (not in fixed proportions and not with chemical bonding)
paste - any mixture of a soft and malleable consistency
compost - a mixture of decaying vegetation and manure; used as a fertilizer
soup - any composition having a consistency suggestive of soup
| |
| 4. |  composition - a musical work that has been created; "the composition is written in four movements"
morceau - a short literary or musical composition
sheet music - a musical composition in printed or written form; "she turned the pages of the music as he played"
music - an artistic form of auditory communication incorporating instrumental or vocal tones in a structured and continuous manner
musical arrangement, arrangement - a piece of music that has been adapted for performance by a particular set of voices or instruments
realisation, realization - a musical composition that has been completed or enriched by someone other than the composer
intermezzo - a short piece of instrumental music composed for performance between acts of a drama or opera
allegro - a musical composition or musical passage to be performed quickly in a brisk lively manner
allegretto - a musical composition or musical passage to be performed at a somewhat quicker tempo than andante but not as fast as allegro
andante - a musical composition or musical passage to be performed moderately slow
introit - a composition of vocal music that is appropriate for opening church services
solo - a musical composition for one voice or instrument (with or without accompaniment)
trio - a musical composition for three performers
bagatelle - a light piece of music for piano
divertimento, serenade - a musical composition in several movements; has no fixed form
canon - a contrapuntal piece of music in which a melody in one part is imitated exactly in other parts
etude - a short composition for a solo instrument; intended as an exercise or to demonstrate technical virtuosity
toccata
- a baroque musical composition (usually for a keyboard instrument)
with full chords and rapid elaborate runs in a rhythmically free style
fantasia - a musical composition of a free form usually incorporating several familiar themes
musical passage, passage - a short section of a musical composition
movement - a major self-contained part of a symphony or sonata; "the second movement is slow and melodic"
largo - (music) a composition or passage that is to be performed in a slow and dignified manner
larghetto - (music) a composition or passage played in a slow tempo slightly faster than largo but slower than adagio
suite - a musical composition of several movements only loosely connected
symphonic poem, tone poem - an orchestral composition based on literature or folk tales
medley, pastiche, potpourri - a musical composition consisting of a series of songs or other musical pieces from various sources
adagio - (music) a composition played in adagio tempo (slowly and gracefully); "they played the adagio too quickly"
song, vocal - a short musical composition with words; "a successful musical must have at least three good songs"
study - a composition intended to develop one aspect of the performer's technique; "a study in spiccato bowing"
capriccio - an instrumental composition that doesn't adhere to rules for any specific musical form and is played with improvisation
motet
- an unaccompanied choral composition with sacred lyrics; intended to
be sung as part of a church service; originated in the 13th century
program music, programme music - musical compositions intended to evoke images or remind the listener of events
incidental music - music composed to accompany the action of a drama or to fill intervals between scenes
| |
| 5. | composition - musical creation
creating by mental acts - the act of creating something by thinking
realisation, realization - the completion or enrichment of a piece of music left sparsely notated by a composer
recapitulation - (music) the repetition of themes introduced earlier (especially when one is composing the final part of a movement)
| |
| 6. |  composition - the act of creating written works; "writing was a form of therapy for him"; "it was a matter of disputed authorship"
verbal creation - creating something by the use of speech and language
adoxography
- fine writing in praise of trivial or base subjects; "Elizabethan
schoolboys were taught adoxography, the art of eruditely praising
worthless things"; "adoxography is particularly useful to lawyers"
drafting - writing a first version to be filled out and polished later
dramatisation, dramatization - conversion into dramatic form; "the play was a dramatization of a short story"
historiography - the writing of history
metrification - writing a metrical composition (or the metrical structure of a composition)
novelisation, novelization - converting something into the form of a novel
redaction - the act of putting something in writing
lexicography - the act of writing dictionaries
versification - the art or practice of writing verse
indite, pen, write, compose - produce a literary work; "She composed a poem"; "He wrote four novels"
profile - write about; "The author of this article profiles a famous painter"
paragraph - write paragraphs; work as a paragrapher
dash off, fling off, scratch off, toss off, knock off
- write quickly; "She dashed off a note to her husband saying she would
not be home for supper"; "He scratched off a thank-you note to the
hostess"
rewrite - rewrite so as to make fit to suit a new or different purpose; "re-write a play for use in schools"
write copy - write for commercial publications; "She writes copy for Harper's Bazaar"
author - be the author of; "She authored this play"
co-author - be a co-author on (a book, a paper)
ghostwrite, ghost - write for someone else; "How many books have you ghostwritten so far?"
annotate, footnote - add explanatory notes to or supply with critical comments; "The scholar annotated the early edition of a famous novel"
script - write a script for; "The playwright scripted the movie"
| |
| 7. |  composition - art and technique of printing with movable type
printing process, printing - reproduction by applying ink to paper as for publication
| |
| 8. | composition - an essay (especially one written as an assignment); "he got an A on his composition"
essay - an analytic or interpretive literary composition
term paper - a composition intended to indicate a student's progress during a school term
| |
| 9. | composition - something that is created by arranging several things to form a unified whole; "he envied the composition of their faculty"
creation - an artifact that has been brought into existence by someone
paste-up - a composition of flat objects pasted on a board or other backing; "they showed him a paste-up of the book jacket"
|
Phonological Processes
Table 2
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suprasegmental stress intonation juncture
"It
a'int what you say but the way you say it."
This familiar
comment, immortalized in song, is the time-honored way of briefly
indicating what suprasegmental analysis is all about.
The segments of spoken
language are the vowels and the consonants, which combine to produce
syllables, words, and sentences.
But at the same time as we
articulate these segments, our pronunciation varies in other respects.
We make use of a wide range of tones of voice, which change the meaning
of what we way in a variety of different ways. Suprasegmental
features operate over longer stretches of speech, such as rhythm and
voice quality as opposed to segmental features, which are the individual
sounds.
Students of language and those who
plan careers in language teaching, coaching, therapy, acting, and
speaking will benefit greatly from understanding how they can influence
meaning by things like length, intonation, stress, and tone and other
suprasegmental features.
Length - the amount of time it takes to produce a sound
Some sounds are longer than others.
If you were to pronounce both
words with longer vowels, the pronunciation might seem strange but the
meaning is not lost. In other words, the meaning of beat and beat
are the same.
But in other languages, vowel
length actually changes the meaning of words. Therefore, pronunciation
of the lengthened sound is very important because the word means
something completely different. Study these examples in Hawaiian.
Length in Hawaiian is indicated with the diacritical mark that looks
like a dash over the vowel, called a kahakō.
| Hawaiian: | kau "to place" |
| kāu "to belong to you" | |
| lolo "brain" | |
| lōlō "slang - hardheaded | |
| kala "to forgive" | |
| kāla "money" | |
| ka lā "the sun" | |
| pau "finished" | |
| pa'u "soot" | |
| pa'ū "skirt" |
In English, you can express your
emotions by lengthening certain sounds in sentences. By varying the
tempo of words (such as lengthening specific sounds) you can communicate
your feelings.
| English: | Should I leave now? |
| Yes. (snipped, implies irritation) | |
| Ye-e-e-e-s-s-s-s (implies thoughtfulness) |
Intonation - the rising and falling of the voice (pitch) over a stretch of sentence
If pitch varies over an entire
phrase or sentence, we call the different pitch curves by the term intonation.
Intonation conveys the speaker's attitude or feelings. In other
words, intonation can convey anger, sarcasm, or various emotions.
How do these sentences - with the
exact same words -- mean very different things with different
intonation?
| John told me to leave. | (normal intonation) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on John: John, not Mike) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on told: told, not asked nicely) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on me: me, not you or Mary) |
| John told me to leave. | (emphasis on leave: leave, not stay) |
Other languages don't use
intonation in this way. "John told me to leave" is "Jose
me mando a salir" in Spanish.
But it's not possible to say Jose me mando a salir
or Jose me mando a salir, as we can in English.
Instead of raising your voice to emphasize a word, Spanish uses word
order and places the word to be emphasized at the end
of the sentence (note: the written accent marks are left out below):
| John told me to leave. | Jose me mando a salir. | (normal intonation) |
| John told me to leave. | Me mando a salir a José. | (emphasis on José) |
| John told me to leave. | Jose me mando a salir a mi. | (emphasis on me) |
3
?
classification of diphthongs
An illustrated note on diphthongs
Coverage of the diphthong and its relatives the triphthong and the tetraphthong is somewhat cursory in phonetics and phonology books I have access to, and ironically (or perhaps expectedly) the entries on the subject in Trask (1996) are the best I've found:- diphthong /'difthan/ n.
- A single syllabic nucleus which begins with one vowel
quality and changes more or less smoothly to a second quality, as in
[ju] and [ai]. Usually one one of the two vocalic elements is more
prominent than the others, this other consisting only of a preceding
glide (an on-glide, as in [ju]), or a following glide (an
off-glide, as in [ai]). The
first type is called a crescendo (or
rising) diphthong, the second a
diminuendo (or falling)
diphthong. Diphthongs may be further classified as
wide or narrow, as
closing or opening, or as
backing, fronting or
centring. Cf. monophthong,
triphthong, tetraphthong.
NOTE the spelling and the pronounciation of this word. It is an error to use the term `diphthong' in the sense of digraph. Greek diphthonggos `double sound'.
Opening and closing diphthongs
 |
|
 |
|
Fronting, centring and backing diphthongs
 |
|
 |
|
Rising and falling diphthongs
These terms are found in Lass(1984) and Laver(1994) as well, 'crescendo' and 'diminuendo' diphthongs seems to be unique to Trask. A term Trask seems to have overlooked is 'level diphthong' as used in Laver(1994); neither rising nor falling.- rising diphthong n. (also crescendo diphthong)
- A diphthong consisting of an on-glide followed by a more prominent second element, such as [ju] or [we]. Ant. falling diphthong.
- falling diphthong n. (also diminuendo diphthong)
- A diphthong consisting of a more prominent first element followed by a less prominent off-glide, such as [aj], [aw], [ee] or [oj]. Ant. rising diphthong.
], as in [
] and [
], which is as good as any.Narrow and wide diphthongs
- narrow diphthong n.
- A diphthong whose intial and final elements differ little in height, such as [ei] or [ow]. Ant. wide diphthong.
- wide diphthong n.
- A diphthong involving a large movement between its intial and final elements, such as [ai]. Ant. narrow diphthong.
Some triphthongs
Whether triphthongs (and tetraphthongs) actually exist is also somewhat debated: the issue is, as with diphthongs, what status/difference is there between the glides (semi-vowels) /j/ and /w/ and "true" vowels. Is a sequence of three "vowels" a sequence of three vowels or are one or two of them glides?
Classification of vowels
Vowel Classification
| Vowel Classification | Vowel Quadrilateral | Dipthongs | Vowel Transcription |
The lips are characterized by being either retracted or
rounded. This is shown in the difference between "moon" and "mean"
Retracted: ALL of the front vowels are classified as retracted, as well as unstressed mid-central vowels, and one low-back vowel.
/i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ, ɑ, ə, ʌ/
Rounded: Most of the back vowels are classified as rounded.
/u, ʊ, o, ɔ, ɚ, ɝ/
Retracted: ALL of the front vowels are classified as retracted, as well as unstressed mid-central vowels, and one low-back vowel.
/i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ, ɑ, ə, ʌ/
Rounded: Most of the back vowels are classified as rounded.
/u, ʊ, o, ɔ, ɚ, ɝ/
The vowels can also be characterized by being either a tense
vowel or a lax vowel.
Tense vowel: These tend to be longer in duration and may require more effort. Also, it can end open syllables.
/i, e, u, o, ɔ, ɑ, ɝ/
Lax vowels include:
/ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʊ, ə, ʌ, ɚ/
Lax vowels never end a stressed open syllable.
Tense vowel: These tend to be longer in duration and may require more effort. Also, it can end open syllables.
/i, e, u, o, ɔ, ɑ, ɝ/
Lax vowels include:
/ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʊ, ə, ʌ, ɚ/
Lax vowels never end a stressed open syllable.
Classification of consonant
sonora
Classification of Consonants: Salient Features |
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Manner: How sounds are made
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Voicing: Whether sounds involve vocal cord vibration
1In vowels, the air passes relatively freely. The tongue, in its varied positions, does create some obstruction, but the air is not really passing freely as it does in breathing, for example. 2Using the presence or absence of vocal chord vibration to differentiate physiologically between voiced and unvoiced consonants is technically accurate, particularly if one only considers the sounds in isolation. For example, the fricatives, such as /  /
and /s/ can be produced in isolation and have no vocal chord vibration.
Their voiced partners, the /zh/ and the /z/, both clearly have vocal chord
vibration. However, for the plosives the situation is a little trickier.
Now the acoustic differentiation between voiced and unvoiced sounds
in co-articulated syllables becomes the most meaningful. It
is not actually possible to produce a plosive sound without it being followed
by a vowel. Even in whispering a "p," one is actually producing a
whispered /p / sound.
3Adapted from: Ling D. (1976) Speech and the Hearing-Impaired Child: Theory and Practice. Washington DC: AG Bell, p. 259. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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